英语翻译 请将以下论文题目翻译成英文,谢谢! 在线翻译的就别往这贴了
1. the developing condition and prospective of sustain energy home and abroad
2. Which way should be chosen by our national biological and chemical industry
3. developing low-carbon technology and promoting green economy
4. the application of new technology in renewable energy
5. the improving technology of large wind turbines is actively promoted by USA
6. EGS terrestrial heat resource: the green hope to satisfy the long term demand of energy for USA
7. the increasing investment fascination to water and electricity industry in romote districts of Europe
除了介词,连词外,每个单词要大写,希望能帮助你。
地热资源
世界上最古老的能源之一。据测算,地球内部的总热能量,约为全约煤炭储量的1.7亿倍。每年从地球内部经地表散失的热量,相当于1000亿桶石油燃烧产生的热量。
关于地热的来源,有多种假说。一般认为,地热主要来源于地球内部放射性元素蜕变放热能,其次是地球自转产生的旋转能以及重力分异、化学反应,岩矿结晶释放的热能等。在地球形成过程中,这些热能的总量超过地球散逸的热能,形成巨大的热储量,使地壳局部熔化形成岩浆作用、变质作用。
现已基本测算出,地核的温度达6000°C,地壳底层的温度达900-1000°C,地表常温层(距地面约15米)以下约15公里范围内,地温随深度增加而增高。地热平均增温率约为3°C/100米。不同地区地热增温率有差异,接近平均增温率的称正常温区,高于平均增温率的地区称地热异常区。地热异常区是研究、开发地热资源的主要对象。地壳板块边沿,深大断裂及火山分布带等,是明显的地热异常区。
普查勘探地热资源,一般采用地表地热调查、钻探和各种物探方法。近年来红外线遥感技术在勘查中取得显著效果。
20世纪末,地热资源的开采对象,主要是埋藏浅、热储量大、有流体(地下水或人工灌水)把热能传引到地表的湿地热田。干热岩地热资源和低温湿地热田的开发利用处在研究试验阶段。
中国的地热资源丰富,有悠久开采历史,以往主要利用温泉洗浴治病。1970年后,在广东丰顺、河北怀来、天津和西藏等地曾进行地热发电、建筑物采暖、农业温室采暖、温水育种、灌溉等多方面试验性开发工作,取得一定成果。
如此“学术”价值几何?评《地热资源及其开发利用和保护》兼评《云南省志第25卷温泉志》
作者:愤怒的北大人
据《地热能》杂志报道:《21世纪可持续能源丛书》新闻发布会于2004年12月在北京召开。当前,我国的可持续发展面临国内优质能源资源不足、能源环境问题突出等严峻挑战,该套由化学工业出版社出版的丛书包括新能源和可再生能源在内共计11本。中科院王大中院士在丛书的序中指出:“在我国能源领域中,这套丛书在深度和广度上都达到了较高的学术和实用价值”(司士荣、刘时彬,2005)。本文所评的《地热资源及其开发利用和保护》(以后简称为《刘书》)就是丛书之11本之一,由刘时彬编著,全书310页,装帧漂亮,图文并茂,售价42元。但就其学术水平而言却只能用3字概括:低水平。它表现在下面几方面。 一、 剽窃之大作
低水平首先表现在:该书作者充分利用了“编著”的“编”字,剪刀加浆糊,拼成了他的大作。当然,现在是处于计算机时代,剪刀与浆糊都不必用了,只要一台计算机就行。总体来说他的剪切是相当大胆的,相当数量的段落是从别的书中一字不拉、一连数页地照搬过来,而且不注明出处。如该书中3.4.1‘什么是地热田’一节从P.102-104,基本是抄自阿姆斯特德1973年所写的《地热能》一书的中译本(1978)第54-56页。该书中3.4.2节‘高温地热田形成特征和条件’,基本抄自黄尚瑶等1986年所写《火山温泉地热能》一书的第81页。3.4.3‘著名高温地热田’一节从105页至108页基本抄自《地热能》一书的第60-62页。其中美国盖色尔斯地热田和日本大岳地热田图文完全一样。3.5节‘板内地热活动带的形成和分布’抄自《火山温泉地热能》一书的第89-90页。3.6节‘世界著名的中低温地热田’中介绍了3个实例,其中匈牙利潘诺宁盆地一段是抄自《地热系统》,而巴黎盆地和西西北利亚盆地抄自《火山温泉地热能》一书的第92-94页。5.4.4节‘微地震观测’一节从第173-178页抄自《腾冲地热》第200-208页。5.4.5节的‘地球物理勘探应用成果示范’其中‘美国加里福尼亚梅萨地热异常’一小节是照抄克鲁格尔和奥托于1973年合作的《地下热能(资源,生产,人工激发)》的中译本(1978)第70-75页。9.3.3节‘腾冲水热活动今昔’一节分数段抄自《腾冲地热》第四章的64-67、69-70、74-79页。仅此节就抄了12页。
除了上面所说的大段大段地抄袭之外,一些章节是从数篇文章组合而成。如9.4节‘地热与北京2008年奥运会’抄自2002年《北京地热国际研讨会论文集》中三篇文章,即由宾德智等的《北京地热资源》(抄自《论文集》169-175页)、高建柯的《北京奥林匹克公园简介》(抄自《论文集》145-146页)和徐光辉的《北京奥运公园地区地热地质条件的地球物理论证》(抄自《论文集》180-185页)组合而成。
另外一种抄袭方式则是将几篇文章选择一些段落交替着抄。如1.7节火山喷发一节是交替抄袭黄尚瑶等所著《火山温泉地热能》和廖志杰所著《中国的火山温泉和地热资源》的有关段落组合而成,其中提及世界火山的分布那一部分,所用插图是采用《火山温泉地热能》的,文字描述是采用《中国的火山温泉和地热资源》的。
仔细看来这本书90%是抄袭别人的劳动成果,抄袭分量之大在近年来是罕见的,特别是现今强调“尊重知识产权”的情况下,依然大胆犯案,是可忍,孰不可忍?
《刘书》的最后也有参考文献,共49件,至于正文中那些段落参考了那些文献,作者是讳莫如深,由读者自己去猜吧! 二、陈旧的资料
低水平还表现在资料的陈旧。现在是21世纪了,本书属于“21世纪可持续能源丛书”的十一本书中之一本,可是所用的资料基本是70年代的。例如,高温地热田所用的三个实例:美国加里福尼亚的盖色尔斯地热田、日本九州的大岳地热田是全文抄袭1973年阿姆斯特德的《地热能》一书的描述;至于对于意大利拉德瑞罗热田的认识在90年代已经发生很大的变化,1995年出现的最新认识是有人认为该热田的形成与变质核杂岩有关,而本书作者则丝毫未提及。关于低温地热田本书中介绍了三个实例:匈牙利潘诺宁盆地、法国巴黎盆地和俄罗斯西西佰利亚盆地,潘诺宁盆地的资料摘自1981年出版的《地热系统》一书,而巴黎盆地和西西佰利亚盆地的介绍则完全抄袭自1986年出版的《火山温泉地热能》的第91至95页。在该书中,巴黎盆地的资料是引自1974年的《巴黎地热》,而西西佰利亚盆地的地热资料是引自1971年玛夫林茨基所发表的《苏联褶皱和地台区的热水》一书,因此,其原始资料都是70年代的。 加上前节所述该书第5.4.5节地球物理勘探应用成果示范一节中范例之一美国加里福尼亚东南部梅萨地热异常一段连图带文字则照搬自克鲁格尔和奥托在1971年合作的《地下热能(资源,生产,人工激发)》的中译本的第70-75页。
三、低劣的知识
作者知识水平的低劣最充分地反映在第5章《如何找地热资源》这一章内,一方面表现在作者不了解当代应用地热学的发展现状;另方面暴露出作者缺乏一些最基本的地热知识。这一章的基本架构雷同于黄尚瑶等所作科普著作《火山温泉地热能》的第四章,同时也参考了《地热系统》一书中由伦贝所写的第三章“地热资源勘探”。现表列如下:
_________
四、糊涂的概念
前节中提到的将“摩尔”与“毫克当量”等同,就是概念糊涂之一例。在书中绝非仅此一例。在《刘书》的第97页,有这样一段奇文:“高温地热区都集中分布在相对比较狭窄的地壳活动带附近,而低温地区则集中分布在板块内部。不过板块内部区域也偶见一些高温地热区的出露,这是由于板内局部存在有特殊热源—岩浆囊等所致,诸如我国西藏羊八井热田,美国夏威夷群岛等。”请问作者:西藏羊八井是归为板缘还是板内呢?羊八井与夏威夷有着同样的构造背景吗?
在《刘书》的第99页作者探究了“板缘地热活动带的形成和分布”,把全球的板缘地热带划分为4个大带和3个亚带,即:
1、环太平洋地热带,包括:东太平洋中脊地热亚带;西太平洋岛弧地热亚带;东南太平洋缝合线地热亚带。2、地中海-喜马拉雅地热带。3、红海-亚丁湾-东非裂谷地热带。4、大西洋中脊地热带。
这个划分是抄袭自《火山温泉地热能》的第78页,该书的作者不是学构造地质出身,错误的将东南太平洋的只有大洋壳的纳兹卡板块与具有陆壳的南美洲板块的聚敛带称为缝合线,而《刘书》的作者丝毫不察,照样抄来,也不可原谅。至于所谓红海-亚丁湾-东非裂谷地热带是冈瓦纳古陆上的阿法尔三联接点发育成的三条裂谷,它们并非连接成带,而是排列呈“Y”字形。红海和亚丁湾是将阿拉伯板块与非洲板块分开的两条裂谷。而东非裂谷则是从三联接点向西南伸的一支,发育在非洲板块之内,怎能说是板缘地热带呢?
五、错误千出的专著
这是刘时彬的另一本大著,但不归他一人负责就是了。《刘书》的参考文献第6条为:“吴光范,任湘,刘时彬,梁乃英主编,云南省志•温泉志。昆明,云南人民出版社,1999。”
该书的正确名称应该是:《云南省志•卷25•温泉志》(简称《滇温泉志》)。需要说明的是,该书第一作者吴光范当时是云南省人民政府秘书长,后为省人大副主任,无疑是出版该书的财东;任湘是中国能源学会地热专业委员会的主任,当时正主持“八五科技攻关”中的地热研究项目,常到云南工作。因此,能够出版此书应赖于此两人的筹划与拍板。而主要的执行人应该是刘。因为《滇温泉志》全书304页中有242页(即80%)是照抄佟伟等主编的《腾冲地热》和《横断山区温泉志》。为了剽窃的方便,在《滇温泉志》的作者名录中也将佟伟拉入其中。
说《滇温泉志》是一本错误千出的专著,绝对没有贬低之意。现将主要问题列举如下:
1、大的硬伤有8处之多。
(1)《滇温泉志》第166页第18-23行为重印物。其中第18行至第21行的前半节,已经见于第165页的倒数1-4行,它们是描述石竹坝温泉的,不应该在描述硫磺塘老滚锅段落中再出现。
(2)《滇温泉志》第166页第21行后半段至第23行则是第15-17行的重复。不过第15行是以“据《光绪腾越乡土志》云:”开始;而第21行后半段则改为“光绪《腾越乡土志》:”开头。
(3)《滇温泉志》第167页第18-21页与第24-27行是完全一样的。讲的是热海第4区的“种磺地面”的一片不毛之地。而第18-21行是放在热海第3区硫磺塘大滚锅的末尾,根本放错地方。
(4)《滇温泉志》第167页的第13-17行与第28-30行是重复文字。第13-17行描述的是硫磺塘大滚锅温泉水的化学分析结果。而第28-30行则是描述热海第4区种磺地面的温泉水化学组分。真是乱点鸳鸯谱,种磺地面是一片蒸汽地面,无法取水样,那来的分析结果。就把大滚锅水样的分析结果搬来了。为何第13-17行为5行而第24-27行只有3行呢?因为后者只有元素符号,没有元素名称。
(5)《滇温泉志》的腾冲温泉名录中丢失了“玛玉窝澡塘”温泉。须知玛玉窝温泉是腾冲四大名泉之一,在明朝的《景泰云南图经金腾两指挥使司志》和稍后的《天启滇志》就有报道。《滇温泉志》的作者在抄录《腾冲地热》的第三章时将“玛玉窝”抄丢了,而没有发现。
(6)。《滇温泉志》第163页瑞滇地热田第三区项目内,将“温泉水化学组分:水样温度、酸碱度、矿化度、钠、钾、钙、镁、锂、铷、铯、铵、碳酸根、重碳酸根、氯、硫酸根、氟”等组分全丢光了,只剩下“溴、碘、二氧化硅、偏硼酸、砷和水型”诸项。
(7)《滇温泉志》第270页福贡县罗底热水塘条目,其泉水化学组分项目中,只剩下:水样温度、酸碱度、矿化度、钠、钾、钙、镁。余下(锂以后11项)的都抄丢了,抄袭的东西也丢三拉四。
(8)《滇温泉志》的第272页的第8-19行的“红石岩温泉” 条目与第273页第20-31行的“河西澡塘”为同一个温泉。它们除了名字不同外,经纬度、描述、化学组分都是一样的。此外,不同之点还在:第272页“红石岩温泉” 条目末尾两行云:“1994年《横断山区温泉志》把温泉区定名为“河西温泉”,本书据1991年《兰坪白族普米族自治县地名志》载文,将它更名为红石岩温泉。” 第273页的“河西澡塘”条目中没有这两行字,但是,在泉水化学组分栏目中增加了地球化学温标温度,遗憾的是将“TNK(钠钾温标)”写成为“TNK(克氏氮量)”,真是令人难解。
2、不该有的错误
(1)“硫酸根”变成为“硫酸”;“二氧化硅”变成为“氧化硅”。
前面曾经提及,《滇温泉志》的温泉条目百分之八十是抄自《腾冲地热》和《横断山区温泉志》,但是为了去掉抄袭之嫌,不得不有所变动。变动之处在于:《腾冲地热》和《横断山区温泉志》两书中的温泉水化学组分栏中只有化学元素符号,没有化学元素名称。《滇温泉志》就在每个化学元素符号之后的括号中加入元素名称。这样一加就露馅了。《滇温泉志》全书收录的水化学数据达600多套,其中大约有608套含有SO4和SiO2,它们的元素名称都写成“硫酸”和“氧化硅”,因此,在书中的错处就达1216处。所以,说本书“错误千出”,绝不冤枉。但是,需要说明的是:在书的首页“编纂说明”中谈到水化学分析结果的表示时,其元素符号和元素名称是完全对应的,是书中唯一没有错误的一处,意味着“编纂说明”是由另一作者起草的,只是正文的作者并不依从。也应当指出“编纂说明”也有毛病:没有说明水化学组分的单位为毫克/升,矿化度单位为克/升;另外,重碳酸根(HCO3)写成NCO3,未予校正,也不应该。
(2)书中多处将硫磺气味和硫化氢的分子式写成“HS气”。(见于第20页、39页和302页)。恐怕这是初中的孩子们都不会犯的错误。
(3)作者对什么是“游CO2”和“CO3”是分辨不清、搞不明白的。有时将“游CO2”的名称标为“碳酸根”(见于14、40、41页);有时将“游CO2”的名称标为“碳酸”(见于第15页);“CO3”之后大部分未标中文名称(与其他元素的表示方法相背);有时在“CO3”之前加“游”字,变成“游CO3”,(见于64、73、74、82、92、93、212、217、638、642、644页);更为奇特的是,有时“CO3”的中文名称标为金属“钴”,(见于268、578、579、580、583、584、585、586、598页)。将《横断山区温泉志》中的某些泉的“CO3”抄袭时改成“游CO2”(50页)。
(4)错字太多,未加校正。有的影响文章的性质。如第168页热海地热田的狮子头的酸性水酸碱度实为3?1,书中则写成“8?1℃”。第244页的小定西沸泉温度为95℃。书中则写成“59℃”。许多地方将河岸写成河岩。不通的句子太多,如:泉水系石灰系灰岩(9页)、泉水之东北向断层系导热断层(33页)、水清澈见底为石灰岩(102页)、泉口喷涌的泉水饱和温度似沸水(132页)、泉水沿安山应为玄武岩缝隙溢出(280页)、地下水的来源为C级Cm1l与D3zg灰岩补给,受西部构造影响而成(289页),上面这些话,你懂吗?不一一列举。
(5)地质上非规范化术语比比皆是。如:石炭系灰岩写成石炭纪灰岩(应该写“系或统”的地方写成“纪或世”,数不胜数)、泉水出露于正常(应为长)岩断裂带上(35页)、储热层时代为砂岩(40页)、受N字型地层之阻后溢出(41页)、围岩性质为岩性砂砾岩、基岩粉砂岩(42页)、地热北高南低(45页)、中温断裂型温泉(56页)、砂岩积石奠砂岩(66页)、围岩性质为绢英片岩变质岩(93页)、三叠世石灰岩(120页)、围岩性质为断裂带(299页)等等,不一一列举。此外地质年代的符号乱写;水化学类型有的用汉字,有的用英文,有的干脆不写,体例不统一。这些现象可能意味着作者似乎未受过系统的专业知识的训练。
(6)“编纂说明”中云:“任湘教授和刘时彬教授于1993年3月向云南省人民政府提出报告。指出温泉志的编纂必将为云南省的新能源领域提供一份翔实的资产清单…。”“于1996年4月初稿完成,编辑的温泉名录共905条。”“概述”一节中云:“全省温泉区1015处。”可是在《刘书》的附录的“表1 云南省各县市温泉分布和分类统计表”中,总计856处。三个数据中,到底哪个数据对?真把人弄糊涂了。
这样的错误其实都是低级的错误。作者们的责任何在?责任编辑的责任何在?出版社领导的责任何在?到底谁该负责呢?
六、一点闲话
呜呼!像这样满目疮痍的学术著作,近年来实属罕见。何况是“志书”,要流芳百世的呢!笔者真不知道作为地方当局父母官的《滇温泉志》第一作者看过该书的草稿否?当他手捧装帧漂亮、图文并茂的成果、细读之后察觉漏洞百出后真不知是怎样的感觉。笔者也敢于相信被列为《滇温泉志》作者之一的佟伟教授是绝对没有看过该书的草稿的,因为这位被公认为治学严谨北大教授绝对不会让这样稀松的烂稿过关。其实该书的操作者真正想要的只是“佟伟”这两个字,而不想要真神来把关。有了这两个字,就可以将《腾冲地热》和《横断山区温泉志》两本书的其他作者撇掉;有了这两个字,就可以将横断山区地热调查的组织者中科院综考会晾到一边。这样就可以将众多人的成果为少数人所占有。笔者倒是不知道云南人民出版社的负责人看到他们的产品是怎样的感觉,他们可能会奇怪:“北大的教授怎么是这样的水平?”
《滇温泉志》最终弄成这样。北京大学的刘时彬教授到底要负多大的责任,我们局外人不得而知。从《滇温泉志》的“编撰职名”中撰稿人共10人,其中:北京大学地质学系:刘时彬、佟伟;中国能源研究会:任湘;云南省地质矿产厅:丁建博;云南省地名委员会:梁乃英等二人;云南师范大学两名;云南省人民政府两名。在主编中作为第三位,在撰稿人中作为首位的刘时彬,难免其咎。据闻:刘时彬中学毕业之后就到北京大学工作,70年代起为北大地质学系地热研究室成员,1976年起参加青藏高原科考队,吃苦耐劳、工作积极、累有著述。90年代起在中国能源研究会地热专业委员会先后担当副秘书长和秘书长,在任湘主任的麾下,车前马后,积极努力,敢于负责。90年代中期,北京大学将其职称提为“高级实验师”。“尺有所短、寸有所长”,术业有专攻,一个人总是有所长,也会有不足之处。刘时彬的缺点在于研究水平不高,而又不肯下功夫去钻研。科学是来不点半分取巧的,是要经过长期的工作一步步积累的。当然,今天的社会太过浮躁,人们又都过于注重名声。古人说:人贵有自知之明。在基础研究方面的不足,必然导致缪误百出的编抄。而如此学术专作,又有何价值?只能令人齿冷。望诸位学者同仁,做文做事做人意在专心如一,方不为虚名所累。
1. Causes of global climate change
Global climate change is the large number of chemical fuel combustion emissions of greenhouse gases caused by the global warming impact of the context of extreme weather around the world frequently staged, snow, hurricanes, floods, drought ... ... global warming has caused glaciers collapse melt, sea level rise, grain production, extinction of species ... ...
Causes of climate change produced the more important factors: First, an increase of greenhouse gases, the heat island effect significantly, resulting in temperatures risingsecond is to increase low-level cloud, cloud increased the reflection, scattering decreased, especially at night, absorbing the heat increased significantlyThird, snow and ice albedo feedback increasesFourth Asian Brown Cloud (pollution) increasefive land use change, soil, grassland degradation, urbanization, desertification, deforestation and so on greater impact.
2. Climate change
Climate change to human production and life is a big influence. Adversely affected mainly: loss of glacier mass balance, glacier water reduction, permafrost degradation, permafrost active layer thickening, resulting in infrastructure affected. New viruses and diseases caused by a number of human health effects. Impacts of climate change vary widely, involving national defense, human health, international finance. According to scientists predict: By 2050, most of Asia including Central Asia, South Asia and East Asia, Southeast Asia, the fresh water supply tensions in some of this tension is particularly evident in large river basinsin the coastal areas, especially South Asia, East and Southeast Asia densely populated areas, flood risk will be significantly significant increasethe background of global climate change Xia, Bansui of industrialization, urbanization and rapid economic development, environmental Ya Li Asian region's natural resources He will further increase. In addition to climate change on human health, there may be variation from floods, drought-induced diarrhea, the morbidity and mortality will increase dramatically.
3. The impact of climate change on China
The case of China, climate warming is leading to abnormal frequency of the main meteorological disasters. Such as Shanghai: at the mouth of the Yangtze River, with an average elevation of only 4 meters, so it is vulnerable to the tide of invasion. By cargo tonnage, Shanghai is the world's busiest port. In 2006, sea level rise, storms and salt water intrusion has led to farmland near Shanghai, housing and wetlands destruction. WWF report predicts that by 2050 sea levels will rise 30 - 50 cm, will result in the Shanghai area of about 54,000 square kilometers (more than half the size of the region) were flooded.
Global climate change seriously affect our food security. China is a large agricultural country, agricultural production greatly affected by natural conditions. The latter half of the 21st century, wheat, rice, corn output of several major crops will likely fall 37%%, if you do not take any action, climate change will seriously affect our long-term food security.
4. Improvement measures to address climate change
"In the face of climate change, we should actively respond to." In the irreversible catastrophe before the arrival of global warming, we only energy conservation, reducing energy consumption, develop new energy sources, to give up fossil fuels and switch to renewable energy, energy conservation, energy efficiency, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, while forest protection, multi-pronged approach to effectively combat global warming trend
太阳能(Solar)一般指太阳光的辐射能量。在太阳内部进行的由“氢”聚变成“氦”的原子核反应,不停地释放出巨大的能量,并不断向宇宙空间辐射能量,这种能量就是太阳能。太阳内部的这种核聚变反应,可以维持几十亿至上百亿年的时间。太阳向宇宙空间发射的辐射功率为3.8x10^23kW的辐射值,其中20亿分之一到达地球大气层。到达地球大气层的太阳能,30%被大气层反射,23%被大气层吸收,其余的到达地球表面,其功率为800000亿kW,也就是说太阳每秒钟照射到地球上的能量就相当于燃烧500万吨煤释放的热量。平均在大气外每平米面积每分钟接受的能量大约1367w。广义上的太阳能是地球上许多能量的来源,如风能,化学能,水的势能等等。狭义的太阳能则限于太阳辐射能的光热、光电和光化学的直接转换。
人类对太阳能的利用有着悠久的历史。我国早在两千多年前的战国时期,就知道利用钢制四面镜聚焦太阳光来点火;利用太阳能来干燥农副产品。发展到现代,太阳能的利用已日益广泛,它包括太阳能的光热利用,太阳能的光电利用和太阳能的光化学利用等。太阳能的利用有光化学反应,被动式利用(光热转换)和光电转换两种方式。太阳能发电一种新兴的可再生能源利用方式。
使用太阳电池,通过光电转换把太阳光中包含的能量转化为电能,使用太阳能热水器,利用太阳光的热量加热水,并利用热水发电,利用太阳能进行海水淡化。现在,太阳能的利用还不很普及,利用太阳能发电还存在成本高、转换效率低的问题,但是太阳电池在为人造卫星提供能源方面得到了应用。
主要是硅光电池在吸收太阳所发射出来的光能,硅光电池主要是从沙子里提炼出来的,由贝尔实验室开发。太阳能是太阳内部或者表面的黑子连续不断的核聚变反应过程产生的能量。地球轨道上的平均太阳辐射强度为1367w/㎡。地球赤道的周长为40000km,从而可计算出,地球获得的能量可达173000TW。在海平面上的标准峰值强度为1kw/m2,地球表面某一点24h的年平均辐射强度为0.20kw/㎡,相当于有102000TW 的能量,人类依赖这些能量维持生存,其中包括所有其他形式的可再生能源(地热能资源除外),虽然太阳能资源总量相当于现在人类所利用的能源的一万多倍,但太阳能的能量密度低,而且它因地而异,因时而变,这是开发利用太阳能面临的主要问题。太阳能的这些特点会使它在整个综合能源体系中的作用受到一定的限制。
尽管太阳辐射到地球大气层的能量仅为其总辐射能量的22亿分之一,但已高达173,000TW,也就是说太阳每秒钟照射到地球上的能量就相当于500万吨煤。地球上的风能、水能、海洋温差能、波浪能和生物质能以及部分潮汐能都是来源于太阳;即使是地球上的化石燃料(如煤、石油、天然气等)从根本上说也是远古以来贮存下来的太阳能,所以广义的太阳能所包括的范围非常大,狭义的太阳能则限于太阳辐射能的光热、光电和光化学的直接转换。
太阳能既是一次能源,又是可再生能源。它资源丰富,既可免费使用,又无需运输,对环境无任何污染。为人类创造了一种新的生活形态,使社会及人类进入一个节约能源减少污染的时代。
太阳电池是一对光有响应并能将光能转换成电力的器件。能产生光伏效应的材料有许多种,如:单晶硅,多晶硅,非晶硅,砷化镓,硒铟铜等。它们的发电原理基本相同,现以晶体为例描述光发电过程。P型晶体硅经过掺杂磷可得N型硅,形成P-N结。
当光线照射太阳电池表面时,一部分光子被硅材料吸收;光子的能量传递给了硅原子,使电子发生了跃迁,成为自由电子在P-N结两侧集聚形成了电位差,当外部接通电路时,在该电压的作用下,将会有电流流过外部电路产生一定的输出功率。这个过程的的实质是:光子能量转换成电能的过程。
“硅”是我们这个星球上储藏最丰量的材料之一。自从19世纪科学家们发现了晶体硅的半导体特性后,它几乎改变了一切,甚至人类的思维,20世纪末.我们的生活中处处可见“硅”的身影和作用,晶体硅太阳电池是近15年来形成产业化最快。生产过程大致可分为五个步骤:a、提纯过程 b、拉棒过程 c、切片过程 d、制电池过程 e、封装过程。
太阳能光伏
光伏板组件是一种暴露在阳光下便会产生直流电的发电装置,由几乎全部以半导体物料(例如硅)制成的薄身固体光伏电池组成。由于没有活动的部分,故可以长时间操作而不会导致任何损耗。简单的光伏电池可为手表及计算机提供能源,较复杂的光伏系统可为房屋提供照明,并为电网供电。 光伏板组件可以制成不同形状,而组件又可连接,以产生更多电力。近年,天台及建筑物表面均会使用光伏板组件,甚至被用作窗户、天窗或遮蔽装置的一部分,这些光伏设施通常被称为附设于建筑物的光伏系统。
太阳热能
现代的太阳热能科技将阳光聚合,并运用其能量产生热水、蒸气和电力。除了运用适当的科技来收集太阳能外,建筑物亦可利用太阳的光和热能,方法是在设计时加入合适的装备,例如巨型的向南窗户或使用能吸收及慢慢释放太阳热力的建筑材料。
据记载,人类利用太阳能已有3000多年的历史。将太阳能作为一种能源和动力加以利用,只有300多年的历史。真正将太阳能作为“近期急需的补充能源”,“未来能源结构的基础”,则是近来的事。20世纪70年代以来,太阳能科技突飞猛进,太阳能利用日新月异。近代太阳能利用历史可以从1615年法国工程师所罗门·德·考克斯在世界上发明第一台太阳能驱动的发动机算起。该发明是一台利用太阳能加热空气使其膨胀做功而抽水的机器。在1615年~1900年之间,世界上又研制成多台太阳能动力装置和一些其它太阳能装置。这些动力装置几乎全部采用聚光方式采集阳光,发动机功率不大,工质主要是水蒸汽,价格昂贵,实用价值不大,大部分为太阳能爱好者个人研究制造。20世纪的100年间,太阳能科技发展历史大体可分为七个阶段。
第一阶段(1900~1920年)
在这一阶段,世界上太阳能研究的重点仍是太阳能动力装置,但采用的聚光方式多样化,且开始采用平板集热器和低沸点工质,装置逐渐扩大,最大输出功率达73.64kW,实用目的比较明确,造价仍然很高。建造的典型装置有:1901年,在美国加州建成一台太阳能抽水装置,采用截头圆锥聚光器,功率:7.36kW;1902 ~1908年,在美国建造了五套双循环太阳能发动机,采用平板集热器和低沸点工质;1913年,在埃及开罗以南建成一台由5个抛物槽镜组成的太阳能水泵,每个长62.5m,宽4m,总采光面积达1250m2。
第二阶段(1920~1945年)
在这20多年中,太阳能研究工作处于低潮,参加研究工作的人数和研究项目大为减少,其原因与矿物燃料的大量开发利用和发生第二次世界大战(1935~1945年)有关,而太阳能又不能解决当时对能源的急需,因此使太阳能研究工作逐渐受到冷落。
第三阶段(1945~1965年)
在第二次世界大战结束后的20年中,一些有远见的人士已经注意到石油和天然气资源正在迅速减少, 呼吁人们重视这一问题,从而逐渐推动了太阳能研究工作的恢复和开展,并且成立太阳能学术组织,举办学术交流和展览会,再次兴起太阳能研究热潮。 在这一阶段,太阳能研究工作取得一些重大进展,比较突出的有:1945年,美国贝尔实验室研制成实用型硅太阳电池,为光伏发电大规模应用奠定了基础;1955年,以色列泰伯等在第一次国际太阳热科学会议上提出选择性涂层的基础理论,并研制成实用的黑镍等选择性涂层,为高效集热器的发展创造了条件。此外,在这一阶段里还有其它一些重要成果,比较突出的有: 1952年,法国国家研究中心在比利牛斯山东部建成一座功率为50kW的太阳炉。1960年,在美国佛罗里达建成世界上第一套用平板集热器供热的氨——水吸收式空调系统,制冷能力为5冷吨。1961年,一台带有石英窗的斯特林发动机问世。在这一阶段里,加强了太阳能基础理论和基础材料的研究,取得了如太阳选择性涂层和硅太阳电池等技术上的重大突破。平板集热器有了很大的发展,技术上逐渐成熟。太阳能吸收式空调的研究取得进展,建成一批实验性太阳房。对难度较大的斯特林发动机和塔式太阳能热发电技术进行了初步研究。
Solar
Solar (Solar) generally refers to the sun's radiation energy. Carried out in the solar interior from "H" together into a "helium" the nuclear reaction, kept a huge release of energy, and continue to the space radiation energy, which is solar energy. This solar nuclear fusion reaction inside the can to maintain the hundreds of millions of百亿年first time. Solar radiation to space launch 3.8x10 ^ 23kW power of the radiation, of which 20 billionth of the Earth's atmosphere to reach. Solar energy reaching the Earth's atmosphere, 30% of the atmosphere reflectance, 23% of atmospheric absorption, and the rest to reach the Earth's surface,
Its power of 80 trillion kW, that is to say a second exposure to the sun's energy on Earth is equivalent to five million tons of coal combustion heat release. The average per square meter in the atmosphere outside the area of energy per minute to receive about 1367w. A broad sense of the solar energy on earth many sources, such as wind energy, chemical energy, potential energy of water and so on. The narrow sense is limited to solar radiation of solar light thermal, photovoltaic and photochemical conversion of the directly.
At this stage, the world's solar energy is still the focus of the study of solar energy power plant, but the diversification of the use of the condenser, and the introduction of flat-plate collector and a low boiling point working fluid, the device gradually expanded up to maximum output power 73.64kW, Objective To compare the clear and practical, cost remains high. The construction of a typical device are as follows: 1901, California built a solar-powered pumping devices, the use of truncated cone condenser power: 7.36kW1902 ~ 1908 years, built in the United States five sets of double-cycle solar-powered engines, the use of flat-panel collector and a low boiling point working fluidin 1913,
Human use of solar energy has a long history. China more than 2000 years ago, back in the Warring States period, one will find that the use of four steel mirror to focus sunlight ignitionuse of solar energy to dry agricultural products. The development of modern, solar energy has become increasingly widespread use, it includes the use of solar energy solar thermal, solar photovoltaic and solar energy use, such as the photochemical use. The use of solar photochemical reaction, a passive use (photo-thermal conversion) and the photoelectric conversion in two ways. A new solar power and renewable sources of energy use.
Silicon photovoltaic cells mainly in the absorption of solar light energy emitted by silicon photocell is mainly extracted from the sand by the development of Bell Labs. Solar energy is the internal or the surface of the sun sunspot continuous process of nuclear fusion reactions produce energy. Earth's orbit on the average solar radiation intensity for the 1367w / ㎡. Circumference of the Earth's equator to 40000km, and thus calculated the Earth's energy can be obtained 173000TW. At sea level standard for peak intensity 1kw/m2, a point on the Earth's surface 24h of the annual average radiation intensity 0.20kw / ㎡, which is equivalent to have 102000TW energy
Human dependence on these energy to survive, including all other forms of renewable energy (except for geothermal energy resources), although the total amount of solar energy resources is the human equivalent of the energy used by ten thousand times, but low energy density of solar energy, and it vary from place to place, from time to time change, the development and utilization of solar energy which is facing a major problem. These features will make solar energy in the integrated energy system of the role of subject to certain restrictions.
The use of solar cells, through the photoelectric conversion to solar energy conversion is included in electricity, the use of solar water heaters, the use of solar heat hot water and use water for power generation, using solar energy for desalination. Now, the use of solar energy is not very popular, the use of solar power costs are high there, the problem of low conversion efficiency, but for satellite solar cells to provide energy has been applied.
Although the Earth's atmosphere solar radiation to the total energy only 22 billionths of a radiation energy, it has been as high as 173,000 TW, that is to say a second exposure to the sun's energy on Earth is equivalent to five million tons of coal. Earth wind energy, hydropower, ocean thermal energy, wave energy and tidal energy as well as some comes from the suneven in the face of the earth's fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, natural gas, etc.) that is fundamentally Since ancient times the storage of solar energy down, so by including a broad range of solar energy is very large,
The narrow sense is limited to solar radiation of solar light thermal, photovoltaic and photochemical conversion of the directly.
Solar energy is the first time, but also renewable energy. It is rich in resources, can use free of charge, and without transportation, without any pollution to the environment. For mankind to create a new life, so that social and human energy into a era of reducing pollution.
Solar cells have to respond to a light and convert solar energy to power the device. Photovoltaic effect can produce many kinds of materials, such as: single crystal silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium selenium. They are basically the same principle of power generation is now crystal as an example to describe the process of light generation. P-type crystalline silicon available after phosphorus-doped N-type silicon, the formation of P-N junction.
When the surface of solar light, the silicon material to be part of photon absorptionphoton energy transfer to the silicon atom, electronic transitions have taken place, as a free-electron concentration in the PN junction formed on both sides of the potential difference, when the external circuit connected when the effects of the voltage, there will be a current flowing through the external circuit have a certain amount of output power. The substance of this process are: photon energy into electrical energy conversion process.
"Si" is our planet's abundance of storage materials. Since the 19th century, scientists discovered the properties of crystalline silicon semiconductor, it almost changed everything, even human thought, end of the 20th century. Our lives can be seen everywhere, "silicon" figure and role of crystalline silicon solar cells is the formation of the past 15 years the fastest growing industry. Production process can be divided into five steps: a, purification process b, the process of pulling rod c, slicing the process of d, the process of system battery e, the course package.
Solar photovoltaic
Is a component of photovoltaic panels in the sun exposure will generate direct current power generation devices, from virtually all semiconductor materials (eg silicon) are made of thin photovoltaic cells composed of solid. Because there is no part of activity, and would thus be a long time operation would not lead to any loss. Simple photovoltaic cells for watches and computers to provide energy, and more complex PV systems to provide lighting for the housing and power supply. Photovoltaic panels can be made into components of different shapes, and components can be connected to generate more power. In recent years, the surface of the roof and building will be the use of photovoltaic panels components,
Even be used as windows, skylights or sheltered part of devices, which are often called photovoltaic facilities with PV systems in buildings.
Solar thermal
Modern technology solar thermal polymerization sunlight and use its energy produced hot water, steam and electricity. In addition to the use of appropriate technology to collect solar energy, the building can also make use of the sun's light and heat energy is added in the design of appropriate equipment, such as large windows or use of the south can absorb and slowly release the sun heat the building materials .
According to records, human use of solar energy has more than 3,000 years of history. To solar energy as an energy and power use, only 300 years of history. The real solar as "the near future to add much-needed energy," "the basis of the future energy mix" is the latest thing. Since the 20th century, 70s, solar technology has made rapid advances, solar energy use with each passing day. Solar energy utilization in modern history from the French engineers in 1615 in the Solomon and Germany Cox invented the world's first solar-powered engines run. The invention is a use of solar energy heating the air to the expansion and pumping machines acting.
In 1615 ~ 1900, between the developed world and more than one solar power plant and a number of other solar energy devices. Almost all of these power plants collect the sun means the use of condenser, engine power is not, the working fluid is water vapor, which is very expensive, not practical value, the majority of individual studies for manufacturing solar enthusiasts. 100 years of the 20th century, the history of the development of solar energy technology in general can be divided into seven stages.
Over the last 20 years, mainly due to the vibration caused by the fatal accidents occurred one after another, inflicting huge economic losses. Furthermore, the vibration is still new to large units shipped impossible grid, the normal operation for the main the crew during normal operations, continuous vibration problems affecting the normal production, Units often reduced load and operation of the sick, and even the unit was forced to stand, these incidents not uncommon. The system based on LabVIEW virtual instrument software platform for turbine vibration signal window read, and spectral analysis and correlation analysis. LabVIEW virtual instrument is a common core of computer hardware platform, defined by the user, with virtual front panel, the test function test software from a computer equipment system. The system completed the turbine vibration signal read, the signal rectangular window Hanning, Hamming window window choice, and then the signal amplitude spectrum, power spectrum and phase spectrum analysis and correlation analysis, and operating with graphics and display interface. The result of running the system proved that the system can accomplish the signal read, and three window function and the dynamic analysis of the various options and graphical display with the results.
专业前景 本专业以工程热物理学科为主要理论基础,以内燃机和正在发展中的其它新型动力机械及系统为研究对象,运用工程力学、机械工程学、自动控制、计算机、环境科学、微电子技术等学科的知识和内容,研究如何把燃料的化学能和液体的动能安全、高效、低(或无)污染地转换成动力的基本规律和过程,研究转换过程中的系统和设备的自动控制技术。随着常规能源的日渐短缺,人类环境保护意识的不断增强,节能、高效、降低或消除污染排放物、发展新能源及其它可再生能源成为本学科的重要任务,在能源、交通运输、汽车、船舶、电力、航空宇航工程、农业工程和环境科学等诸多领域获得越来越广泛的应用,在国民经济各部门发挥着越来越重要的作用。 培养目标 本专业方向培养具备热能与动力工程专业方面的基本理论、基本知识和基本技能,能在国民经济各部门从事热力发动机和其它新型动力机械及设备的设计、制造、管理、教学和科研等方面的高级工程技术人才。 培养特色 本专业在加强学生基础理论和综合素质教育的同时,加强计算机及自动控制技术的应用,强化专业实践教学,注重全能训练,全面提高学生的实践动手能力和科学研究潜力,使毕业生具有较强的择业竞争能力和较宽的就业适应能力。 主干课程 机械制图、机械原理、机械设计、理论力学、材料力学、工程材料、电工技术、电子技术、计算机软件基础、液压技术、液力传动、内燃机构造、内燃机原理、内燃机设计、内燃机试验、发动机电子技术、工程热力学、流体力学、传热学、自动控制理论、现代测试技术等。 就业方向 毕业后可从事能源与动力设备的行政管理、内燃机及新型动力设备的开发研制、内燃机排放控制、新能源利用、汽车工业、兵器工业、环保工业、交通运输业、船舶、电力、航空宇航工业等方面的工作。
The prospect of major works of the major hot in physics as the main theoretical basis to the internal combustion engine and the other is the development of new machinery and power systems for the study, the use of engineering mechanics, mechanical engineering, automation, computers, environmental science, microelectronics technology disciplines, such as content knowledge and to study how the chemical energy of fuel and liquid kinetic energy security, high-performance, low (or none) of pollution to the power into the basic law and the process of research in the conversion process of the automatic control systems and equipment technology . With the growing shortage of conventional energy, human the growing awareness of environmental protection, energy saving, high efficiency, reduce or eliminate polluting emissions, the development of new energy and other renewable sources of energy has become an important task for the subjects in the energy, transportation, automotive, ships, electricity, aviation aerospace engineering, agricultural engineering and environmental science in many fields such as access to more and more widely used, the department in the national economy is playing an increasingly important role. Cultivate cultivate goal with the direction of the major thermal power projects with the major aspects of the basic theory, basic knowledge and basic skills, to engage in various departments in the national economy and other heat engines power the new machinery and equipment design, manufacture, management, teaching and scientific research aspects of advanced engineering and technical personnel. Cultivate major characteristics of the students in strengthening the basic theory and the overall quality of education, to strengthen the computer and automatic control technology, and strengthen the teaching of professional practice, pay attention to all the training, students enhance the practice of comprehensive practical ability and scientific research potential, so that graduates have strong competitiveness and a wide choice of employment adaptability. Mechanical Drawing trunk curriculum, mechanical principles, mechanical design, theoretical mechanics, mechanics of materials, engineering materials, electrical technology, electronics technology, computer software foundation, hydraulic technology, hydraulic transmission, the internal combustion engine structure, the principle of internal combustion engines, internal combustion engine design, the internal combustion engine testing, engine electronic technology, engineering thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, automatic control theory, modern test technology. Employment after graduation can be engaged in the direction of energy and power equipment, administration, internal combustion engines and new development of power equipment, internal combustion engine emission control, new energy use, the auto industry, the weapons industry, industrial environmental protection, transport, shipping, electricity, air space industrial job.
Motor vehicles are not the only air polluters. Coal and oil, used to heat homes and factories and to generate electricity, contain small amounts of sulfur. When the fuels are burned, sulfur dioxide, a poisonous gas, is produced. It is irritating to the lungs. Some cities have passed laws that allow coal and oil to be burned only if their sulfur content is low.
汽车不是唯一的空气污染。煤炭和石油,用于家庭取暖和工厂,并产生电力,含有少量的硫。当燃料燃烧,二氧化硫,一种有毒气体,就产生了。它是刺激到肺部。一些城市已通过法律,允许煤炭和石油只有在其被烧毁硫含量低。
Most electricity is generated by steam turbines. About half of the sulfur dioxide in the air comes from burning fuel to make steam. Nuclear power plants do not burn fuel, so there is no air pollution of the ordinary kind. But the radioactive materials in these plants could present a danger in an accident. Also, there is a problem in disposing of the radioactive wastes in a way that will not endanger the environment.
大部分电力是由蒸汽涡轮机。关于空气中的二氧化硫,使蒸汽一半来自燃料燃烧。核电厂不烧燃料,所以不存在的那种普通的空气污染。但是,在这些植物的放射性物质可能会提出一个意外的危险。此外,还有一个在放射性废物处置的方式,不会危害环境的问题。
Another type of pollution, called thermal (heat) pollution, is caused by both the fuel-burning and nuclear plants. Both need huge amounts of cold water, which is warmed as it cools the steam. When it is returned to the river, the warm water may stimulate the growth of weeds. It may also kill fish and their eggs, or interfere with their growth.
另一种污染类型,称为热(热)污染,是造成双方的燃料燃烧和核电厂。双方都需要的冷水,这是温暖,因为它大量的蒸汽冷却。当返回到河边,温暖的水会刺激杂草生长。它也可以杀死鱼,它们的卵,或干扰他们的成长。
Physicists are studying new ways of generating electricity that may be less damaging to the environment. In the meantime, many power plants are being modernized to give off less polluting material. Also, engineers try to design and locate new power plants to do minimum damage to the environment.
物理学家们正在研究发电对环境损害较小的新方法。与此同时,许多发电厂也在实现现代化以减少污染物质。此外,工程师们尝试设计并找到对环境的损害最小的新的发电厂。
Thermal energy and power engineering
This program is to cultivate both master thermal energy and power engineering professional basic theoretical knowledge, computing skills, but also the ability in various forms of generating power plant, refrigeration and air conditioning, new energy related fields in need of economic management knowledge and ability, can be engaged in the electric power industry related to areas of science and technology application, research, development and management of a senior talents. According to the national construction and talents needs, set up the professional direction includes: thermal power engineering, power plant set control operation, refrigeration and air conditioning engineering, gas power engineering, advanced energy engineering etc.
Major courses: theoretical mechanics, mechanics of materials, engineering thermodynamics, engineering fluid mechanics, heat transfer, turbine principle, boiler principle, thermal power plants, the pump and fan, automatic control theory, motor learning, circuit theory, the control system, unit unit operation principle, thermal process detection technology, engineering graphics, mechanical design basis, electrician technical basis, electronic technology base, refrigeration and cryogenic principle, refrigeration compressor, refrigeration automation and testing technology, gas turbine principle, gas gas-steam combined cycle power plant, gas turbine combined-cyde operation and maintenance, nuclear reactor theoretical basis, nuclear system and the maintenance, the PWR nuclear power plant system and equipment, wind power generation principle, professional class.
Employment place to go: large-scale modernized electric power enterprise, power equipment manufacturing enterprises and energy class enterprise engaged in production, operation and management work, Government departments at all levels and institution engaged in energy, power, energy saving, environmental planning, design, construction, operation, consultation and supervision worketc. Research institutes, universities in energy and power related research and development, teaching, management, etc.