谁提供几个关于煤炭的英文文献啊 谢谢了
COAL -- A Fossil Fuel
How Coal Was Formed
How We Get Coal
How Coal is Transported
Types of Coal
Where We Get Coal
How Coal is Used
Coal and the Environment
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HOW COAL WAS FORMED
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is the most abundant fossil fuel produced in the United States.
Coal is a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to create. The energy in coal comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the earth was partly covered with swampy forests. For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants. The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal.
HOW WE GET COAL
Mining the Coal
Coal miners use giant machines to remove coal from the ground. They use two methods: surface or underground mining. Many U.S. coal beds are very near the ground's surface, and about two-thirds of coal production comes from surface mines. Modern mining methods allow us to easily reach most of our coal reserves. Due to growth in surface mining and improved mining technology, the amount of coal produced by one miner in one hour has more than tripled since 1978.
Surface mining is used to produce most of the coal in the U.S. because it is less expensive than underground mining. Surface mining can be used when the coal is buried less than 200 feet underground. In surface mining, giant machines remove the top-soil and layers of rock to expose large beds of coal. Once the mining is finished, the dirt and rock are returned to the pit, the topsoil is replaced, and the area is replanted. The land can then be used for croplands, wildlife habitats, recreation, or offices or stores.
Underground mining, sometimes called deep mining, is used when the coal is buried several hundred feet below the surface. Some underground mines are 1,000 feet deep. To remove coal in these underground mines, miners ride elevators down deep mine shafts where they run machines that dig out the coal. Read about a visit to a real underground coal mine.
Processing the Coal
After coal comes out of the ground, it typically goes on a conveyor belt to a preparation plant that is located at the mining site. The plant cleans and processes coal to remove dirt, rock, ash, sulfur, and other unwanted materials, increasing the heating value of the coal.
TRANSPORTING COAL
After coal is mined and processed, it is ready to be shipped to market. The cost of shipping coal can cost more than the cost of mining it.
Most coal is transported by train, but coal can also be transported by barge, ship, truck, and even pipeline. Almost 60 percent of coal in the U.S. is transported, for at least part of its trip to market, by train. It is cheaper to transport coal on river barges, but barges cannot take coal everywhere that it needs to go. If the coal will be used near the coal mine, it can be moved by trucks and conveyors. Coal can also be crushed, mixed with water, and sent through a "slurry" pipeline. Sometimes, coal-fired electric power plants are built near coal mines to lower transportation costs.
TYPES OF COAL
Coal is classified into four main types, or ranks (lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, anthracite), depending on the amounts and types of carbon it contains and on the amount of heat energy it can produce. The rank of a deposit of coal depends on the pressure and heat acting on the plant debris as it sank deeper and deeper over millions of years. For the most part, the higher ranks of coal contain more heat-producing energy.
Lignite is the lowest rank of coal with the lowest energy content. Lignites tend to be relatively young coal deposits that were not subjected to extreme heat or pressure. Lignite is crumbly and has high moisture content. About eight percent of the coal produced in the United States is lignite, and most of it comes from Texas and North Dakota. Lignite is mainly burned at power plants to generate electricity.
Subbituminous coal has a higher heating value than lignite. Subbituminous coal typically contains 35-45 percent carbon, compared to 25-35 percent for lignite. Most subbituminous coal in the U.S. is at least 100 million years old. Over 40 percent of the coal produced in the United States is subbituminous.
Bituminous coal contains 45-86 percent carbon, and has two to three times the heating value of lignite. Bituminous coal was formed under high heat and pressure. Bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 to 300 million years old. It is the most abundant rank of coal found in the United States, accounting for about half of U.S. coal production. Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity and is an important fuel and raw material for the steel and iron industries.
Anthracite contains 86-97 percent carbon and its heating value is slightly lower than bituminous coal. Anthracite is very rare in the United States. The only anthracite mines in the United States are located in northeastern Pennsylvania.
WHERe WE GET COAL
Coal reseves are beds of coal still in the ground waiting to be mined. The United States has the world's largest known coal reserves, about 275 billion short tons. This is enough coal to last over two hundred years at today's level of use.
Coal production is the amount of coal that is mined and sent to market. The United States produces over a billion short tons of coal each year, over 1/5 of the world's coal. Coal is mined in 27 states. Wyoming mines the most coal, followed by West Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and Texas. Coal is mainly found in three large regions, the Appalachian Coal Region, the Interior Coal Region, and Western Coal Region (includes the Powder River Basin).
Coal Production in Three Regions
2004
Appalachian Coal Region:
Annually produces about 35% of total U.S. coal production.
Large underground mines and small surface mines.
Coal mined in the Appalachian coal region is primarily used for steam generation for electricity, metal production, and for export.
Interior Coal Region:
Annually produces approximately 13% of total U.S. coal production.
Mid-sized surface mines.
Mid- to large-sized companies.
Western Coal Region:
Annually produces about 52% of total U.S. coal production.
The State of Wyoming (number one coal state) accounts for over 30% of total U.S. coal production.
Large surface mines.
Largest coal mines in the world.
HOW COAL IS USED
Over 90 percent of the coal used in the United States is used to generate electricity. It's also used as a basic energy source in many industries, including, steel, cement and paper. The four major uses of coal are:
FOR ELECTRIC POWER
Coal is used to generate more than half of all electricity produced in the United States. Besides electric utility companies, industries and businesses with their own power plants use coal to generate electricity. Power plants burn coal to make steam. The steam turns turbines which generate electricity.
FOR INDUSTRY
A variety of industries use coal's heat and by-products. Separated ingredients of coal (such as methanol and ethylene) are used in making plastics, tar, synthetic fibers, fertilizers, and medicines. The concrete and paper industries also burn large amounts of coal. Industrial consumers use over 7 percent of the coal mined in the United States.
FOR MAKING STEEL
Coal is baked in hot furnaces to make coke, which is used to smelt iron ore into iron needed for making steel. It is the very high temperatures created from the use of coke that gives steel the strength and flexibility for products such as bridges, buildings, and automobiles.
FOR EXPORT
In 2004, 48 million short tons, about 4 percent of the coal produced in the United States, was exported to other countries. Coal is exported to many different countries, but most trade is with Canada, Europe, and Brazil. More than half of coal exports are used for making steel. Read about a visit to a coal export facility. Coal exports have been generally shrinking in the past 10 years, while the amount of coal imported from other countries has been growing. In 2004, 27 million short tons of coal were imported from other countries. Most of these imports were shipped to electric power producers along the U.S. coastlines.
COAL AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Environmental laws and modern technologies have greatly reduced coal's impact on the environment. Without proper care, mining can destroy land and pollute water. Today, restoring the land damaged by surface mining is an important part of the mining process. Because mining activities often come into contact with water resources, coal producers must also go to great efforts to prevent damage to ground and surface waters.
When coal is burned as fuel, it gives off carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas that is linked with global warming. Burning coal also produces emissions, such as sulfur, nitrogen oxide (NOx), and mercury, that can pollute the air and water. Sulfur mixes with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), a chemical that can affect trees and water when it combines with moisture to produce acid rain. Emissions of nitrogen oxide help create smog, and also contribute to acid rain. Mercury that is released into the air eventually settles in water. The mercury in the water can build up in fish and shellfish, and can be harmful to animals and people who eat them. The Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act require industries to reduce pollutants released into the air and the water.
The coal industry has found several ways to reduce sulfur, nitrogen oxides, and other impurities from coal. They have found more effective ways of cleaning coal before it leaves the mine, and coal companies look for low-sulfur coal to mine. Power plants use "scrubbers" to clean sulfur from the smoke before it leaves their smokestacks. In addition, industry and government have cooperated to develop "clean coal technologies" that either remove sulfur and nitrogen oxides from coal, or convert coal to a gas or liquid fuel. The scrubbers and NOx removal equipment are also able to reduce mercury emissions from some types of coal. Scientists are working on new ways to reduce mercury emissions from coal-burning power plants, since the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set tighter mercury limits for the future.
1.有些文献中标题和摘要有用英文写的,这时可以直接引用,因为用英文的标题在文献搜索的软件中同样可以搜到。
2.若没有英文标题,这时就需要考虑你引用的是文章中的哪部分内容了,可以在此文章后面的参考文献中找与你引用的内容相关的标题,然后再在文献搜索软件中搜索看是否有这个文章,如果有直接复制此参考文献到自己文章中即可。
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2004年中俄两国领导人达成共识,提出到2010年中俄贸易额实现600亿~800亿美元的奋斗目标。按目前中俄的贸易规模,到2010年中俄贸易总额需要翻一番方可实现600亿美元的目标。如果以2005年为基数,其后4年每年中俄贸易的增长率都在30%以上,毫无疑问,到2008年中俄贸易额就可达到600亿美元,到2009年就可达到800亿美元。问题是,随着中俄贸易规模和基数的增大,今后每年的增长幅度能否保持在30%以上?俄罗斯对商品和劳务的需求潜力还有多大?俄罗斯有支付能力的需求是否会不断上升?中国对俄出口和从俄进口是否有新的增长点?所有这些问题都涉及中俄贸易的可持续发展问题,也是回答到2010年能否实现中俄贸易额600亿~800亿美元的重要依据。
从20世纪90年代初到2005年的统计数据看,中俄贸易确实呈现一种加速增长趋势。1992~2001年中俄贸易用了10年时间突破了100亿美元大关;2001~2004年中俄贸易用了3年时间突破了200亿美元大关;2004~2005年中俄贸易只用1年时间就接近300亿美元大关①(见下表)。
我们必须看到,中俄贸易中还有一些不确定因素,或称非规律性因素,如中国购买俄罗斯的军工产品和核电站项目的技术设备等,这种购买不是每年都会发生,也不是贸易持续增长的稳定因素。因此,中俄贸易能否持续增长,能否继续保持加速势头,主要还要看一般商品贸易和服务贸易的潜力。
(一)俄罗斯市场需求潜力仍然很大
近年来,随着俄罗斯经济的持续增长和居民收入的增加,俄罗斯对以下几类产品的需求将不断扩大。
1.机电产品。目前,在俄罗斯现有的家电中有相当多数量需要淘汰。据了解,彩电有一半以上需要更新,对电冰箱、空调和小家电的需求旺盛。近10年来,俄罗斯能正常使用的收割机、拖拉机数量减少近一半,设备年报废率达6%~10%,急需更新农业机械、农机具和建立新的维修体系。俄木工机械的加工设备落后,木材只能实行初加工,这类机械产品的需求潜力很大。
2.建材产品。随着俄罗斯房地产市场不断升温,对建材的需求呈明显上升趋势。目前,俄所需的保温材料70%靠进口,门窗材料的进口占55%,水暖器材占67%,屋面材料占91%,胶合板占60%,油漆占27%,金属瓦占75%,天然瓦占90%。
3.纺织服装。目前,俄每年对服装和纺织品的消费大约为360亿美元,包括服装、鞋类、枕巾、浴巾、床上用品、棉布、丝绸等。俄纺织业设备陈旧、工艺落后,远远满足不了需求,主要依靠进口。
4.家具。据俄专家预测,未来5年俄对家具的需求将增长5~7倍。俄家具生产的最大障碍是设备陈旧,老化率达70%~80%,其中有40%的设备使用期已达20多年。俄生产家具用的中密度板85%依靠进口,高质量的贴面材料和油漆也主要依靠进口。中国家具出口俄罗斯的主要问题是设计风格与市场需求不吻合。
5.农产品。俄远东地区农业生产能力逐年下降,农产品供需矛盾日益突出,从欧洲部分调运成本很高。目前,仅远东地区每年粮食缺口80万吨左右,蔬菜缺口40万吨,肉和肉类制品缺口40万吨,奶和乳制品缺口60万吨,水果缺口40万吨。俄远东地区的蔬菜需求有80%从黑龙江省进口,市场价格是中国国内同类产品价格的4~6倍①。
(二)中国市场对俄罗斯一些产品的需求具有持续性和增长潜力
从未来5~10年的时间看,中国市场对俄罗斯的很多产品,包括技术产品的需求,不仅具有持续性的特点,而且还具有可以预测的增长潜力,具体表现在如下六个方面。
年份 贸易额 增长幅度(%)
1992 46.3 ―
1993 76.7 65.7
1994 50.8 ―36.5
1995 54.6 7.6
1996 68.3 25.3
1997 61.2 ―10.6
1998 54.8 ―10.5
1999 57.2 40.4
2000 80.3 39.9
2001 106.7 33.3
2002 119.3 11.8
2003 157.6 32.1
2004 212.3 34.7
2005 291.0 37.1
1.对能源产品的需求将呈现不断增长势头。随着中国经济的发展,对能源的需求,尤其对石油、天然气和电力的需求将会大幅增长,能源进口的规模将会不断扩大。以石油为例。2000年中国进口石油7 027万吨,2001年为6 026万吨,2002年为6 941万吨,2003年为9 112.63万吨,2004年为1.228 155亿吨,2005年为1.3亿吨①。中国在石油进口方面采取多元化战略,但从俄罗斯进口石油是这种多元化战略中的重点。在过去6年从俄进口石油数量的不断增长中,我们就会看到中俄石油贸易的广阔前景。2000年中国从俄罗斯进口石油为147.67万吨,2001年为176.6万吨,2002年为302.96万吨,2003年为525.48万吨,2004年为1 077.4万吨,2005年为1 278万吨②。随着中俄石油管道、天然气管通的铺设和电力网的对接,中俄在这一领域的贸易规模必将会日益扩大,如果考虑石油价格的上涨,双边能源贸易的总额将更加可观。
2.中国对俄罗斯核工业技术设备的需求潜力仍然很大。从中国的能源战略看,加速核能的开发利用、建设更多的核电站已列入中国的长期建设规划之中,而在这一领域俄罗斯具有很大优势和出口能力,可向中国出口的技术设备具有较强的竞争力。
3.中国对俄罗斯木材的需求具有可持续的特点。目前,中国木材有40%需要进口,而俄罗斯完全有能力满足中国这一缺口。只是俄罗斯把木材视为一种战略资源,因此,在采伐和出口方面采取了限制措施,从而使中俄木材贸易受到了政策制约。尽管如此,中国从俄进口木材的贸易额还是呈逐年增长趋势,2000年中国从俄进口木材为593.1万立方米,2001年为876.5万立方米,2002年为1 480.84万立方米,2003年为1 436.7万立方米,2004年为1 701万立方米,2005年为2 004.32万立方米③。
4.中国对俄罗斯的煤炭、矿产品、有色金属、化工原料及化肥等商品的需求只会增加,不会减少,而且在相当长的时期内中国的这种需求不会减弱或消失。俄罗斯有这方面供给能力,中国的需求规模和购买能力毫无问题。
5.中国对俄罗斯的大型电站设备和大型工程建筑机械的需求也将会保持相当大的规模与相当高的水平。未来一段时期,中国的基础设施建设和房地产开发仍将是政府和企业投资的热点领域,俄罗斯在一些大型工程机械出口方面完全可以大有作为。
6.中国在很多领域对俄罗斯的技术产品有着强烈的需求,如生物技术、材料技术、核工业技术、农业技术、航空航天技术、信息技术等。虽然中国已制定并实施自主创新战略,但从基础研究到形成产业技术需要一个过程,而且也提倡在模仿和吸收的基础上进行创新。俄罗斯在上述技术领域具有得天独厚的优势,从俄罗斯的总体技术水平看,俄罗斯的技术有1/4处于世界领先水平,有1/2处于世界的一流水平,有2/3的技术水平与美国旗鼓相当。因此,中俄之间的技术贸易潜力非常大,如果俄罗斯能充分认识到自己的优势,能真正把中国当作可信赖的战略伙伴,能彻底摆脱冷战时期的思维模式,中俄之间的技术贸易前景广阔。
二 影响中俄贸易可持续发展的因素分析
(一)对俄罗斯贸易没有形成规模化和规范化
2005年中俄边境贸易总额达55.7亿美元,同比增长32.7%,这仅仅是中国海关的统计数据,实际边境贸易额要比这大得多。中俄贸易之所以能达到300多亿美元的规模,除边境贸易外,主要是一些大项目和大宗贸易的拉动,如军工产品贸易、石油天然气贸易和电站建设配套产品贸易,而正规的一般性商品贸易所占比重不是很大。经过20世纪90年代大浪淘沙之后,中国对俄贸易的个人、个体企业和国有大型贸易公司基本上都撤出了俄罗斯。因此,目前,对俄贸易的两个突出特点是:非规模化、非规范化。这种贸易形式要上台阶,要实现跨越式发展比较困难。
(二)目前,中国对俄罗斯商品贸易主要集中在俄远东西伯利亚地区
虽然中国对该地区的贸易最有地缘优势,但该地区人口毕竟有限,总共600多万,且收入水平比俄欧洲部分相差很多,消费层次较低,市场容量有限。如果说中国沿边省市做俄远东西伯利亚地区的市场还可以理解,或者说有得天独厚的条件,而全国企业都要挤到这一地区做贸易,就使国际贸易竞争变成了一种国内企业竞争和地区竞争,各方贸易利益都将减少,而且从对俄贸易可持续发展的角度看,也是一种目光短浅、胸无大志的表现。
(三)对俄罗斯贸易通道狭窄已成为发展中俄贸易的瓶颈
在中俄边境贸易口岸中,绥芬河的条件最好,过货量最大,也是直接与俄西伯利亚大铁路接轨的贸易口岸。然而近些年来,绥芬河的过货量已经饱和。在绥滨铁路上,绥芬河―下城子95公里仍为单线;绥芬河―格罗捷科沃26公里仍为套轨。绥阳―东宁的地方铁路虽然已完工,但尚未与俄方接轨。连接黑河与布拉戈维申斯克的大桥至今也没建起来,人们期望的经牡丹江、绥芬河到俄罗斯港口,通向日韩、北美的出海口和连接国内东南沿海地区的路海联运通道没有完全打开。目前,虽然通往绥芬河、黑河的境内公路有较大改善,但通往其他口岸的道路状况仍然很差,进口的大量商品无法迅速运出。
(四)目前“灰色清关”仍然盛行,虽然是两厢情愿,但最后受损失的还是中国商人或企业
中国商品被查抄、被罚款的情况时有发生。对中国来说,“灰色清关”造成中国人之间竞相压价,干扰整体开发俄罗斯市场,有损中国企业和中国商品形象,是中俄贸易的一大隐患。从俄罗斯政府角度看,“灰色清关”使国家税收流失,干扰正常贸易秩序,腐蚀国家工作人员,败坏俄罗斯声誉,甚至影响“入世”进程。
(五)近年来,俄罗斯对木材、矿产等原料型产品的出口加以限制,而这些产品都是中国需要进口的商品
要继续扩大中俄贸易的规模,就需要加强中俄相互投资力度,尤其要加大中国对俄的资源开发与产品加工领域的投资,以投资带动贸易,优化中俄贸易结构,提升中俄贸易档次。然而,俄罗斯的投资环境较差,投资风险较大。一是在俄有关投资法律、法规中有很多技术性要求,经常造成执法的随意性。二是地方法律与联邦法律不一致,税收等相关法律不稳定,且经常出现有法不依,不能充分保护外国投资者的利益。三是俄仍对外来投资设置一系列限制,如限制油气资源开发,禁止购买不动产,限制外商参与国家采购和企业私有化的竞标等。四是行政壁垒,如对外资进入俄银行体系设置条件,对外资在俄企业持股规定最高比例(如在天然气企业的资本不能超过20%)。五是俄罗斯的基础设施及与投资相关的配套设施不健全,政府的低效率、官员的腐败和社会治安状况令投资者望而却步。
(六)中俄在贸易结构方面已开始出现摩擦与争议
近年在中俄贸易中,中国对俄出口主要是轻工产品和电子产品等,基本上属于制成品,而从俄罗斯进口主要是石油、木材、矿产品和各种有色金属,属于原材料或初级产品。目前,在中国对俄出口中轻纺产品占50%左右,而从俄进口中原材料产品约占60%。对于这种情况,俄方不但出现了抱怨情绪,甚至还产生了反感甚至戒备心理,认为中国只盯住俄罗斯的战略资源,而不愿更多地购买俄罗斯的机电产品,所以一再要求中国多进口俄罗斯的机电产品。对于俄方的这种情绪、心态和要求,我们可以理解。但我们必须理智地、客观地给予解释和说明。首先,中俄贸易从总体上是平衡的,而且在多数情况下都是俄方顺差,这与中美贸易的格局完全不同。中俄贸易之所以出现这种贸易结构,绝不是人为的结果,而是双方的产业结构和双边贸易的互补性决定的。如果没有这种互补性,中俄贸易也无从谈起。其次,俄罗斯的机电产品多属于粗制滥造,在质量上、工艺上与欧美产品无法相比,且售后服务及零配件供应等均不到位,因而中国客户难以接受,包括俄向中国出口的大型核电站设备,其设计思路堪称世界一流,但工艺质量却常出现问题。此外,我们还应看到,中国从欧、美、日等国进口机电产品的企业,多为这些国家在华投资设厂的企业,而俄罗斯在华投资企业中这类企业很少,因此,就没有这方面的需求。
三 中俄贸易可持续发展的对策思路
(一)加快交通运输线路的改造和建设,打通对俄贸易大通道
最近几年应完成绥芬河口岸扩能改造、绥芬河―格罗捷科沃套线改造、绥芬河―牡丹江的复线改造和建设东宁―乌苏里斯克的地方铁路。完成哈尔滨―绥芬河和哈尔滨――满洲里的电气化改造。加快推进黑河大桥和古洛河黑龙江大桥的建设及萝北、饶河大桥建设,完成牡丹江―绥芬河、牡丹江―海林、牡丹江―阿城段的高速公路建设。
在水路方面应尽快完成松花江大顶子山航运枢纽工程,黑龙江―哈巴罗夫斯克、同江―哈巴罗夫斯克的航道整理,佳木斯―抚远江海联运线港口扩张工程。
(二)以边境口岸市县为后方,以俄远东地区为基地,大踏步向俄腹地市场(俄欧洲部分)进军
俄欧洲部分市场消费水平高、支付能力强,市场潜力大,是我们扩大贸易规模、提升贸易层次的目标市场。最近,中国企业家联合会正与有关企业筹划在莫斯科建立中国机电产品城。笔者认为,这是向俄市场纵深发展的好思路。要进入和扩展俄罗斯欧洲部分市场,一方面需要建立逐步延伸的贸易基地、仓储系统和销售网络,另一方面需要对中国的贸易资源进行优化整合,形成对俄贸易的商业集团或联合体,以最优质的商品、最合理的价格、最好的售后服务和最畅通的供货渠道在俄罗斯欧洲部分市场展开竞争。
(三)加快发展边境地区的农副产品生产、加工和出口基地
近些年,黑龙江省沿边市县已建起了对俄粮食出口基地、蔬菜出口基地、肉蛋奶出口基地。今后应努力扶植龙头企业,加大政策和资金的支持力度,把沿边对俄出口基地规模、质量、效益做上去,并保持持续发展势头。
(四)以投资带动贸易,实现对俄投资贸易一体化
如上所述,俄罗斯在很多产品生产方面希望外来投资,在基础设施建设和改造方面需要外来投资,在资源开发和深加工领域需要外来投资。我们应抓住机遇,在俄境内建立能满足俄市场需求的企业,生产产品在俄销售。这种形式将可避开过境贸易的各种难题,又可依据俄市场变化情况和消费者的要求,随时调整生产规模和产品规格。而在投资的过程中,有些机械设备、原材料还需从国内进口;有些产品在俄加工后也可返销国内市场或销往第三国市场,因而产生投资对贸易的带动效应。笔者认为,在俄境内建立生产加工园区的方式可以规避在俄投资的很多风险,也能较容易与俄政府有关部门进行沟通,使园区的管理更多地由中方承担,避免各种不确定因素。
(五)南北企业联手,共同在俄罗斯进行项目投资
近年来,南方企业对俄罗斯市场和投资的兴趣日益浓厚,但由于对俄市场和投资环境缺乏了解,鲜有与俄政府和商人打交道的经验与教训,因而谨慎小心、顾虑重重。而黑龙江省企业在这些方面具有优势,如能与南方企业的资金优势、经营优势结合起来,联手在俄罗斯进行项目投资,应该是优势互补、强强联合,会在俄获得较好的投资效益。当然,这种投资方式的成功关键在于项目选择及建立良好的合作机制和互信关系。
(六)借助俄方企业优势,实行买壳经营的投资战略
目前,俄罗斯有很多大中型国有和私有企业经营效益不好,技术设备陈旧,产品与市场需求不相适应,但更新改造和更新换代又资金不足。对于这类俄方企业,中国有实力的企业可采取买壳经营的投资战略取而代之。一方面可以省去新建企业的各种复杂程序,享受本地企业的各种相关待遇,还可充分利用俄方企业易于与俄当地政府有关部门打交道的有利条件;另一方面可充分发挥中方在资金、应用技术和经营方面的优势,把企业做大做强。当然,这种中俄合资企业需要把产权划分清楚,把收益分配原则界定清楚,解决好俄方人员安置与债务责任,同时要选好未来发展的项目和设计好企业的经营管理机制。
(七)依托绥芬河的口岸优势和背靠俄罗斯林业资源的优势,建立覆盖东亚地区的木材交易中心
目前,绥芬河的龙江商联集团正在筹备建立木材交易所,这个项目的思路很好。我们应积极支持其把此事做大、做精,做出现代化和国际化水平。这个木材交易所要按国际化标准设计,采用现代电子交易手段,不但包括即期交易,还可从事期货贸易;不但要吸收中国客户进入,更要吸引俄罗斯的卖方客户进入;不但买卖绥芬河市场的木材,还应买卖整个黑龙江省和俄罗斯的木材;它的买方客户不仅限于中国,而是面向东北亚地区,甚至东南亚地区。俄罗斯的林业资源是这一交易市场的重要支撑,如果俄罗斯卖方客户能大量进入这一市场,不但会省去中间环节的费用,还会使木材价格更加透明公正,并且可提高交易效率,节约交易成本。这种实际利益会推动俄罗斯的相关利益群体,要求政府放松和放宽对木材出口及森林采伐的限制,从而保证中方对俄木材进口的连续性和长期性。
(八)发展和规范边境贸易,率先在绥芬河口岸建立起“一区跨两国”的中俄自由贸易区
中俄边境贸易经过30多年的发展和起伏,现在应该说已经日益规范化和正常化。2006年上半年中俄边境贸易额为31.3亿美元,边境贸易已成为中俄贸易的重要组成部分,它对于双边口岸经济的发展和人员就业是不可或缺的。2006年俄罗斯对边境贸易采取了紧缩政策,自然人过境免税携带商品从50公斤减至35公斤,其意图是要将边境贸易“逼”向正规贸易,以增加联邦政府的税收。但这损害了俄边境地区的经济利益,俄边境地区政府非常支持边境贸易,因为它体现着双方共同利益,具有旺盛的经济活力。目前,上海的世茂集团已在绥芬河中方海关区域投资建立起贸易综合体,在该综合体的区域内设有产品加工区、商品仓储区和休闲娱乐区,在中俄边境地区修建起一个人工湖和两座五星级宾馆,在海关外的俄方道路也由世茂集团承建。这样,原来设在边境的互市贸易区已开始向“一区跨两国”的中俄自由贸易区和综合贸易区的方向发展。这不仅会扩大边境贸易的规模,更将增强其后劲和吸引力。对此,中国政府及相关主管部门应给予强有力的政策支持和大力协助,尤其应与俄方沟通相关事宜,解决中俄在政策上的协调问题,为企业的发展、边境贸易的发展创造条件和环境。
现在,企业已经走在了前头,其战略视野和投资气魄令人钦佩,而政府更应勇于创新,知难而上,与企业共同做好中俄贸易可持续发展这篇大文章。
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从较简单的化合物或单质经化学反应合成有机物的过程。有时也包括从复杂原料降解为较简单化合物的过程。由于有机化合物的各种特点,尤其是碳与碳之间以共价键相连,有机合成比较困难,常常要用加热、光照、加催化剂、加有机溶剂甚至加压等反应条件。1828年F.维勒由无机物氰酸铵合成了动物代谢产物尿素,数年之后H.科尔贝又合成了乙酸,从此有机合成化学获得迅速发展。有机合成大致分为两方面:①基本有机合成。包括从煤炭、石油、水和空气等原材料合成重要化学工业原料,如合成纤维、塑料和合成橡胶的原料,溶剂,增塑剂,汽油等,其产量几乎接近于钢铁的数量级。②精细有机合成。包括从较简单的原料合成较复杂分子的化合物,如化学试剂、医药、农药、染料、香料和洗涤剂等。20世纪70年代以后,有机合成的新领域迅速发展,如一些有一定立体构象的天然复杂分子的合成,一些新的理论和方法如反应机理、构象分析、光化学,各种物理方法分析手段的应用等方面的进展,尤其是分子轨道对称守恒原理的提出,对有机合成化学起着极大的推动作用。
EI:工程索引
(The Engineering Index,EI)创刊于1884年,是美国工程信息公司(Engineering information Inc.)出版的著名工程技术类综合性检索工具。Ei Compendex是全世界最早的工程文摘来源。Ei Compendex数据库每年新增的50万条文摘索引信息分别来自5100种工程期刊、会议文集和技术报告。Ei Compendex收录的文献涵盖了所有的工程领域,其中大约22%为会议文献,90%的文献语种是英文。
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查质量控制 的定义
搜建筑质量 的学术趋势
搜控制 的学术趋势
翻译 建筑质量控制
搜索相关数字
建筑钢材价格
北京市建筑施工企业总产值
上海市清运建筑垃圾
两步法制造水煤气新工艺的的研发将大大提高了没得利用率。
水煤气行业的“工业革命”——“两步法水煤气制造工艺”
刚刚进入二十一世纪,人类就惊讶的发现,伴随新科技,新文明的到来.能源危机的红灯频频亮起.石油危机,煤炭危机,天然气危机等等,一次次发难,像一只只大手扼住人类赖以生存的血液.中国能源告急,西欧能源告急,北美能源告急,一时间能源问题实实在在摆在了人类面前.能源关乎国家的兴衰,民族的存亡,甚至关系到整个人类的生存。为应对能源问题,欧盟发布了《欧盟能源供应安全绿皮书》《能效行动计划》,日本颁布了《关于能源使用合理化的法律》即《节能法》、《促进石油替代能源的开发和导入的相关法令》即《石油替代能源法》,美国则推出了《国家能源政策法--2005》。中国也起草颁布了《能源法》和《可再生能源法》.一些高瞻远瞩的企业家也适时研发了新技术、新设备.”两步法水煤气制造工艺”就是洛阳豫燃煤气设备公司为应对新世纪能源问题而研发的环保节能技术.它具有高效、节能、环保等特性.符合党的“十七大”所提出的“抓好节能减排工作,着力推进资源节约型、环境友好型社会建设”所要求的成功典范.
专利技术与传统工艺的对比
两步法制气工艺(专利号:200620130339.4)仍采用固定床煤气炉,利用加热的空气来吹风,高温高热的蒸汽制气,对加套锅炉进行特殊的保温处理;控制制气阶段气化区最下部未烬燃料温度,不低于碳氧反应的过渡控制温度,不使气化层下部未燃尽的炭层温度在制气后期降至复燃点以下,确保了整个循环过程中火层稳定不上移。这样,两步法制气工艺仅有短时吹风和上行制气两个过程,大大简化了工艺过程,提高了单炉生产强度,消除了间歇制气过程中各个步序频繁切换带来的低产高耗问题,并克服了富氧连续制气所需的高昂制氧成本。对于两步法仅有上行制气,炉上带出热量较多,可通过空气预热器、蒸汽过热器将空气和蒸汽预热,回收这部分热量再用于制气,这样就将热量损失降到了最低,同时也提高了供热水平,稳定了火层。
现今广泛使用的工艺仍是传统的五步法,该工艺主要是:空气吹风、上行制气、下行制气、二次上行制气、空气吹净五个阶段循环.由于共用管道多,每个阶段的实现靠阀门控制,阀门切换频繁,占用大量时间,导致制气强度降低。制气主要在上行制气阶段进行,在煤气产量达到最大值后,随着床层温度降低迅速下降,下行制气阶段煤气产量大部分时间低于平均值;二次上行制气主要目的是为了安全考虑,空气吹净阶段主要是为了回收煤气炉上部空间和管道里的煤气。因此整个循环过程制气强度不高,效率低下。由于多步循环难以实现高效短循环制气制气阶段持续时间长,吸热量大,整个循环过程温度大起大落,平均温度低,蒸汽分解率低;同时由于整个循环多步交替,有效制气时间短,热损失大;防挂壁的加套锅炉设计增加了散热损失,因而能耗高,耗煤量大.
国内现在的中小型氮肥厂主要采用固定床常压制气.由于国家对环保问题的重视及建立节约型社会的要求,固定床造气审批有一定难度.而两步法工艺由于采取了多种措施对煤气进行降温和清洁处理:首先利用热交换器进行降温和粗除尘,再通过洗气箱、洗气塔、脱硫塔和填料塔进行洗涤、脱硫、和脱萘,使煤气的洁净度完全满足连续生产的需要,并符合环境保护和节约能源的要求.
二步法新工艺的实践
山西芮城县某医药包装业有限公司是一家新型现代化企业,建厂数年来一直使用液化气生产,随着液化气价格节节攀升,产品成本大幅增加,在市场竞争中处于劣势,陷于进退维艰的处境。在2006年5月引进洛阳豫煤燃气设备公司先进技术,率先在本企业使用两步法水煤气制造工艺,并于2006年7月装置建成后达到了出人意料的效果。设备运行至今,不仅给企业带来巨大的经济效益,而且也充分验证了两步法工艺确实有效的解决企业所面临节能减排的难题.
两步法制气新工艺的优点:
1 降低能耗幅度大
以在芮城安瓶厂煤气站耗煤7~8吨/天,与同等产气量的五步法制气装置的10~12吨/天相比,能耗降幅近30%;与每天使用两吨多液化气相比,节约能源费用近50%。
2 所产煤气稳定,热值高
经该厂化验室化验分析,煤气热值在2800~2900千卡/标准立方米。
3 煤气纯净度高
本装置运行所产的煤气满足了其生产技术改造和正常生产的要求,未出现过堵塞灯头现象。
4 同步优化效应
由于采用新工艺所产煤气热值高、稳定性好,使得企业的一些技术改造项目得以实施,以安瓶厂为例,班产达到22万只左右,增长率达20 %而且基本能达到无人操作的水平。由于能耗低,使安瓶生产成本大大降低,使企业摆脱了难以生存的困境,在全国安瓶行业站稳了脚跟。
新工艺的前景分析
当今中国已成为煤炭、钢铁、铜等世界第一大消费大国、继美国之后的世界第二大石油和电力消费大国.《南方网讯》报道”尽管石油、天然气消费迅速增加,但综合国内外的各种预测,到2020年,煤炭在中国一次能源消费结构中仍将占第一位,达60%左右.”中国煤炭工业协会会长范维唐在国务院发展研究中心主办的能源战略和政策国际研讨会上说,目前煤炭在中国的一次能源消费中占67%,而世界平均水平是25%.在利用煤炭过程中,存在环境污染严重的问题.为此中国政府已经出台相关政策,支持洁净煤技术发展。解决中国能源需求,提高能源的开发和利用效率应摆在首位。节约能源已经被专家视为与煤炭、石油、天然气和电力同等重要的“第五能源”.
洛阳豫燃煤气设备公司独创的两步法水煤气生产工艺,克服了五步法制气碳转化率低、热效率低的顽症,又克服了固定床富氧连续制气过程中二氧化碳含量高等问题,具有很高的经济效益和社会效2008/7/11益。如用于老厂改造,设备改动小,不中断生产,易于实施。芮城安瓶厂煤气站,仅以百余万元的投资在较短的时间内就取得了巨大的成就,就是一个很好的例证.
新工艺的经济效益和社会效益
现今全国大中型化肥厂及制碱厂有700余家,而90%的企业采用的仍是落后的即将被淘汰的五步法制气工艺。该工艺煤耗大,生产效率低,煤气热值低、清洁度低。如果引进两步法制气工艺或进行两步法制气工艺改造,则仅需600万至1000万元人民币,且不中断生产,易于实施。若以每家企业每天耗煤500吨计,再以适宜条件下最低18%的节煤率计算,那么每家企业每年至少可节省2000多万元的能源消耗成本,行业可节省数百亿元的能源资金。自2003年以来能源价格居高不下并以双位数的增率不停攀升,仅2008年1-6月份煤炭价格就上涨了48%,给耗煤企业带来巨大的生产和经济压力,因而两步法制气工艺所带来的经济效益将会越来越可观。节约就是盈利,节约就是增加竞争力,节约就是一个优秀国人爱国的具体体现。
单纯从资源量的角度看,中国煤炭资源如果按年产25亿吨原煤来推算也仅可供应80年。党的十七次代表大会明确提出建设环境友好型社会和资源节约型社会的科学发展观。改变透支资源求发展的方式,转换经济发展的路径和模式,扭转“高投入、高消耗,高排放、不协调、难循环、低效益”的粗放型经济增长方式,逐步建立起资源节约型产业体系和消费体系。节能与环保已成为时代的主题。洛阳豫燃煤气设备公司研发的“两步法制气工艺”以其高超的节约性能和优越的环保性能完全契合这个时代主题,是通向黎明的一道曙光。该工艺若在制气行业得到全面推广,将使整个制气行业接近或达到欧美发达国家同期先进水平。给整个制气行业乃至整个国民经济带来新的生机。两步法制气工艺的应用和推广蕴含着无尽商机。十七大为实现全面建设小康社会提出了更高的目标和要求,每一个有责任的企业家,每一个有理想的公民都应尽自己的一份力量。我们期待着两步法制气工艺全面推广的一天早日到来。
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The Industrial Revolution of Water-gas industry
Two-step method to create water-gas research and development of new technology will greatly improve the utilization rate did not have to.
Water-gas industry, "industrial revolution"
- "Water-gas two-step manufacturing process"
Just entered the twenty-first century, mankind on the surprising discovery, accompanied by new technology, the arrival of a new civilization. Energy crisis of the red light again. The oil crisis, the coal crisis, gas crisis, a meeting to launch an attack, like a big hand扼住the blood of human life. China's energy in an emergency, an emergency energy in Western Europe, North America, the energy in an emergency, and for a time before a real energy problem before the human. The rise and fall of national energy, national survival, or even related to the survival of humanity as a whole. To deal with energy issues, the EU issued a "security of energy supplies the EU Green Paper" "energy efficiency action plan", Japan enacted the "rationalization of energy use on the law" that "energy conservation law", "to promote the development of alternative energy sources of oil and import the relevant decrees, "that is" oil-alternative energy method ", the United States launched the" National Energy Policy Act - 2005. " China is also drafting the promulgation of the "Energy Law" and "Renewable Energy Law." Some far-sighted entrepreneurs are timely development of new technologies, new equipment. "Two-step manufacturing process water gas" is gas-fired equipment in Luoyang of Henan for energy issues to deal with the new century and the development of environmental protection and energy saving technology. It has high efficiency, energy saving, environmental protection and other features. In line with the party's "big 17" by the "energy-saving emission reduction efforts work, making efforts to promote resource-saving and environment-friendly society" required by a successful example.
Patented technology with the traditional process of comparison
Process gas two-step method (patent number: 200620130339.4) is still using fixed-bed gasifier, the use of heated air to hair, high-temperature gas steam heat, and special jacketed boiler heat treatmentcontrol gasification gas phase the most the lower part of the fuel ash is not temperature, not less than the transition of control of carbon and oxygen reaction temperature, the lower layer so as not to gasification of the carbon unburned gas temperature in the late resurgence to the following points to ensure that the entire cycle of the process of stable fire Move. In this way, two-step method only short briefing process gas and gas up the two processes, greatly simplifying the process to improve the strength of the single-furnace production, the elimination of the intermittent gas-step process of each switch sequence brought about by frequent high-and low-yield consumption, and to overcome the oxygen-rich gas required for the high cost of oxygen. Two-step method for the uplink, only gas, furnace heat to bring out more through the air preheater, steam superheater and steam air preheater, heat recovery for reuse in this part of gas, so that heat loss will reduced to a minimum, but also increased the level of heating, and stability of the fire.
Technology today is still widely used is the traditional five-step method, the process is: air hair, upstream gas, downstream gas, the second upstream gas, the air blowing cycle of the net five stages. Because of the shared pipeline, and the realization of each stage depends on the valve control, valve switching frequency, occupied a great deal of time, resulting in lower gas intensity. Mainly in the upstream gas-phase gas in the gas production reached the maximum, as the bed temperature to drop rapidly in the gas phase down production of gas is lower than the average of most of the timethe second uplink gas main purpose is to security considerations, the air blowing the net mainly to the recovery stage gas furnace in the upper space and the gas pipeline. Therefore the entire cycle gas intensity is not high, and low efficiency. Multi-step cycle as a result difficult to achieve a short cycle of high-performance gasgas phase lasted for a long time, heat absorption, and the whole cycle of ups and downs of temperature, the average low temperature, low vapor decompositionAt the same time, the turn of the entire multi-step cycle, an effective system of air time short, large heat lossanti-jacketed wall of an increase of boiler design heat loss, and thus high energy consumption, coal consumption volume.
Domestic small and medium-sized fertilizer plant now used mainly to suppress regular fixed-bed gas. As the importance of environmental issues and the establishment of a conservation-minded society, there is a fixed-bed gas is difficult to approval. The two-step process as a result of various measures taken to lower the temperature of the gas handling and cleaning: First, the use of heat exchangers for cooling and coarse dust, and then through the gas washing boxes, gas washing towers, desulphurization towers and packed tower for washing, desulfurization, naphthalene and off so that the cleanliness of gas production to satisfy the needs of, and comply with environmental protection and energy conservation requirements.
Two-step process of the new practice
Ruicheng County, Shanxi Pharmaceutical Packaging Co., Ltd. is a new type of modern enterprise, with liquefied natural gas plant has been producing the past few years, as rising gas prices, increased product costs, competition in the market at a disadvantage, caught in a peacekeeping difficult situation. In May 2006 the introduction of Luoyang of Henan coal gas equipment's advanced technology, has taken the lead in the use of water-gas two-step manufacturing process, and in July 2006 after the completion of installation to achieve the unexpected results. Equipment has not only brought huge economic benefits for enterprises, but also to fully verify the effective two-step process to solve the energy companies are facing the problem of emission reduction.
Two-step method of the advantages of new technology gas:
Reduce power consumption rate of a large
Ruicheng security in the bottle factory gas station coal consumption from 7 to 8 tons / day of gas production with the same legal system of the five gas installations 10 ~ 12 tons / day compared to nearly 30 percent drop in energy consumptionwith more than two tons per day compared to gas, energy costs nearly 50%.
2 Gas production stability, high heat value
Analysis of laboratory tests by the plant, gas heat value in 2800 ~ 2900 kcal / standard cubic meters.
3 high-purity gas
Operation of the device produced by the gas to meet its production technology and the requirements of normal production, does not appear to plug the lamp is off.
4 simultaneous optimization effect
As a result of new technology produced a high calorific value gas, good stability and makes a number of business transformation projects to be implemented in order to bottle factory security as an example, the middle class to reach about 220,000, a growth rate of 20% and can achieve the non-basic operator level. As a result of low energy consumption, so that security costs have greatly lowered the production of bottles, so that enterprises find it difficult to survive out of the plight of the industry in the country Bottle On firmer footing.
Analysis of the prospects for new technology
Today's China has become the coal, iron and steel, the world's largest copper-consuming country after the United States the world's second largest consumer of oil and electricity power. "Reuters News" reported that "Although oil and natural gas consumption increased rapidly, but the forecast at home and abroad by 2020, coal in primary energy consumption structure in China will continue to rank first, amounting to 60%." China Fan Weitang Coal Industry Association, the State Council Development Research Center of Energy-sponsored international seminar on strategies and policies, the current coal in primary energy consumption in China accounted for 67%, while the world average is 25%. Process in the use of coal, there is a serious problem of environmental pollution. For this reason the Chinese government has introduced policies to support the development of clean coal technology. Solve China's energy demand, improve energy efficiency in the development and utilization should in the first place. Energy conservation experts has been regarded as coal, oil, natural gas and electricity as important as the "fifth energy."
Luoyang, Henan coal-fired gas equipment companies original two-step water-gas production process, the rule of law to overcome the five gas carbon conversion rate is low and the chronic problem of low thermal efficiency, but also to overcome the fixed-bed oxygen-rich gas for the process of the high carbon dioxide levels, with very high economic efficiency and social efficiency benefits 2008/7/11. Such as that used for transformation of the old plant, equipment changes to small, non-interrupted production, easy to implement. An Ruicheng bottle factory gas station just over a hundred million to invest in a short period of time made tremendous achievements, is a good example.
New economic and social benefits of technology
The current national system of large and medium-sized fertilizer plants and plant more than 700, and 90% of the enterprises is still lagging behind the soon-to-be out of the five-step process gas law. Coal consumption of the process, and low productivity, low calorific value gas, low cleanliness. If the two-step method to introduce process gas or gas two-step method for the transformation process, it takes only from 6 to 10 million yuan, and does not interrupt production, easy to implement. If every company of 500 tons of coal per day, and then under appropriate conditions to a minimum 18% rate of coal, then at least every enterprise can save more than 2000 million in energy consumption costs, the industry can save tens of billions of element of the energy funds. Since 2003, high energy prices and by double-digit rate of non-stop climb, only 1-6 months in 2008 on coal prices rose 48 percent, to a huge coal production enterprises and economic pressure, which two-step process the rule of law brought about by gas will become more and more significant economic benefits. Conservation is profitable is to increase the competitiveness of saving, saving is a good concrete manifestation of the patriotic citizens.
Purely from the perspective of resources, China's coal resources according to an annual output of 2.5 billion tons of coal to supply projections are only 80 years. Seventeenth Party Congress explicitly put forward the building of environment-friendly society and resource-saving society, the concept of scientific development. Advances the development of resources for the sake of change the way the conversion of economic development path and model, to reverse the "high input, high consumption and high emissions, lack of coordination, difficult cycle and low-effectiveness" of the extensive mode of economic growth, and gradually establish a resource-saving industries systems and consumer systems. Energy-saving and environmental protection has become a theme of the times. Henan Luoyang gas-fired equipment research and development of "two-step filling process the rule of law" to save its high performance and superior environmental performance totally fit the theme of this day and age is to work together towards the dawn of the dawn. If the process gas industry to promote, the entire gas industry in Europe and America close to or reach the advanced level of developed countries over the same period. Gas industry to the whole national economy as a whole new life. Gas two-step method of application and promotion process contains endless business opportunities. 17 has a well-off society to achieve a higher goal and requirements of the responsibility of every entrepreneur, every ideal of a citizen should do their part. We look forward to two-step process to promote the rule of law gas early arrival of the day.